The relationship between humans and ethanol stretches back roughly 10m years. Alcohol has shaped human history from our ancestors' descent from the trees to the formation of modern cities.
Ten million years ago a common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees and gorillas acquired a mutation allowing more efficient removal of ethanol from the body. This coincided with tropical forests collapsing, forcing some apes to the ground where fallen, fermenting fruit was available. The "drunken monkey" hypothesis holds that a love of the smell and taste of alcohol -- the sign of an energy-rich fruit -- gave ground-foraging ancestors a survival edge. A study of overripe wild Panamanian palm fruits found none stronger than 5% alcohol.
The first solid evidence of intentional brewing is from nearly 10,000 years ago, at a Neolithic site in Jiahu, China, where residues in jars suggest an early mead blended with rice and fruit wine.
Robin Dunbar of Oxford University argues that rituals involving mild intoxication may have kept large social groups (beyond about 100 members) cohesive by amplifying other bonding tools: laughing, singing, dancing, storytelling and worshipping. All these activities trigger endorphins, as does booze itself. Moderate drinking puts the drinker in a positive mood and may even make them look more attractive to sober observers. Dunbar's research shows that pub regulars have larger and closer support networks.
Edward Slingerland of the University of British Columbia's "drunk hypothesis" (2021) holds that alcohol was a precondition for large-scale civilisation, allowing "fiercely tribal primates to co-operate with strangers."
Worldwide, alcohol abuse results in nearly 1.8m deaths a year. In January 2023 the WHO declared that no amount of alcohol was safe, calling it a "Group 1 carcinogen". Some 540m people, largely of East Asian ancestry, struggle to break down acetaldehyde (a toxic metabolite), causing the "Asian flush" phenomenon.
Earlier studies suggesting moderate drinking was healthy were flawed: they failed to distinguish between people who had never drunk and those who had stopped because it was making them unwell.
A meta-analysis of 69 studies, covering more than 12,000 people in America, Australia, Canada and France, found no evidence that people drank more on the days when they felt glum. In fact, people were up to 28% more likely to drink—and 23% more likely to binge-drink—on days when they were in a good mood. For most people, drinking is a social indulgence rather than a solitary coping mechanism.
Per-capita consumption in the OECD fell from 8.9 litres of pure alcohol equivalent in 2011 to 8.6 in 2021. Alcohol consumption fell in most OECD countries in the ten years to 2023. Volumes in the world's top 20 markets continued to fall by 2% between the pandemic and 2024. Adolescent drinking has declined since the turn of the millennium in almost all rich countries. GLP-1 weight-loss drugs like Ozempic may also reduce alcohol cravings by influencing the brain's reward pathways.
Sales of spirits and beer are rising, according to IWSR, a drinks-data firm. Wine is the only big alcohol category that has declined across all price brackets, reflecting a move away from the slower, shared meals and smaller gatherings where wine once flowed. In surveys in Britain and America, beer is the top choice at barbecues; wine is the top choice for dinner with friends, especially among women.
The global market for non-alcoholic beers, wines and mocktails was worth $26bn in 2024 and is projected to reach $47bn by 2034. "Functional drinks" using plant extracts (ginseng, ashwagandha, lion's mane, CBD) promise calming or socially lubricating effects. GABA Labs, near London, is developing a flavourless substance called Alcarelle that mimics alcohol's stress-reducing effects by acting on GABA receptors.
Oh, love is real enough, you will find it some day, but it has one arch-enemy -- and that is life.